What is the treatment for Endometrial cancer?

Treatment options involve surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.
A hysterectomy may be performed in women with the early stage 1 disease. Removal of the tubes and ovaries (bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy) is also usually recommended.
Abdominal hysterectomy is recommended over vaginal hysterectomy. This type of hysterectomy allows the surgeon to look inside the abdominal area and remove tissue for a biopsy.
Surgery combined with radiation therapy is often used to treat women with stage 1 disease that has a high chance of returning, has spread to the lymph nodes, or is a grade 2 or 3. It is also used to treat women with stage 2 disease.
Chemotherapy may be considered in some cases, especially for those with stage 3 and 4 disease.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What are the signs and tests for Endometrial cancer?

A pelvic examination is frequently normal, especially in the early stages of disease. Changes in the size, shape, or feel of the uterus or surrounding structures may be seen when the disease is more advanced.
Tests that may be done include:

• Endometrial aspiration or biopsy
• Dilation and curettage (D and C)
• Pap smear (may raise a suspicion for endometrial cancer, but does not diagnose it)

If cancer is found, other tests may be done to determine how widespread the cancer is and whether it has spread to other parts of the body. This is called staging.
Stages of endometrial cancer:

1. The cancer is only in the uterus.
2. The cancer is in the uterus and cervix.
3. The cancer has spread outside of the uterus but not beyond the true pelvis area. Cancer may involve the lymph nodes in the pelvis or near the aorta (the major artery in the abdomen).
4. The cancer has spread to the inner surface of the bowel, bladder, abdomen, or other organs.

Cancer is also described as Grade 1, 2, or 3. Grade 1 is the least aggressive, and grade 3 is the most aggressive.

 10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What are the symptoms of Endometrial cancer?

• Abnormal uterine bleeding, abnormal menstrual periods
  
  • Bleeding between normal periods before menopause
  • Vaginal bleeding or spotting after menopause
• Extremely long, heavy, or frequent episodes of vaginal bleeding after age 40
• Lower abdominal pain or pelvic cramping
• Thin white or clear vaginal discharge after menopause
  
   10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
  Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
  On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
  at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
  292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.
  
  For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What are the Causes, incidence, and risk factors of Endometrial cancer?

Endometrial cancer is the most common type of uterine cancer. Although the exact cause of endometrial cancer is unknown, increased levels of estrogen appear to play a role. Estrogen helps stimulate the buildup of the lining of the uterus. Studies have shown that high levels of estrogen in animals result in excessive endometrial growth and cancer.
Most cases of endometrial cancer occur between the ages of 60 and 70 years, but a few cases may occur before age 40.
The following increase your risk of endometrial cancer:

• Diabetes
• Estrogen replacement therapy without the use of progesterone
• History of endometrial polyps or other benign growths of the uterine lining
• Infertility (inability to become pregnant)
• Infrequent periods
• Tamoxifen, a drug for breast cancer treatment
• Never being pregnant
• Obesity
• Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)
• Starting menstruation at an early age (before age 12)
• Starting menopause after age 50

Associated conditions include the following:

• Colon or breast cancer
• Gallbladder disease
• High blood pressure
• Polycystic ovarian disease
  
  10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
  Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
  On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
  at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
  292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.
  
  For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org
  

What is Endometrial cancer?

Endometrial adenocarcinoma; Uterine adenocarcinoma; Uterine cancer; Adenocarcinoma -endometrium; 

 

Adenocarcinoma - uterus; Cancer - uterine; Cancer - endometrial; Uterine corpus cancer

Endometrial cancer is cancer that starts in the endometrium, the lining of the uterus (womb).

 10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What other information should I know?

Keep all appointments with your doctor and the laboratory. Your doctor will order certain lab tests to check your response to thyroid.
Before having any laboratory test, tell your doctor and the laboratory personnel that you are taking thyroid.
Thyroid tablets may have a strong odor. This does not mean that the medication is spoiled or that it cannot be used.
Learn the brand name and generic name of your medication. Check your medication each time you have your prescription refilled or receive a new prescription. Do not switch brands without talking to your doctor or pharmacist, as each brand of thyroid contains a slightly different amount of medication.
Do not let anyone else take your medication. Ask your pharmacist any questions you have about refilling your prescription.
It is important for you to keep a written list of all of the prescription and nonprescription (over-the-counter) medicines you are taking, as well as any products such as vitamins, minerals, or other dietary supplements. You should bring this list with you each time you visit a doctor or if you are admitted to a hospital. It is also important information to carry with you in case of emergencies.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What Should we do in case of emergency/overdose?

In case of overdose, call your local poison control center. If the victim has collapsed or is not breathing, call local emergency services.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What storage conditions are needed for this medicine?

Keep this medication in the container it came in, tightly closed, and out of reach of children. Store it at room temperature and away from excess heat and moisture (not in the bathroom). Throw away any medication that is outdated or no longer needed. Talk to your pharmacist about the proper disposal of your medication.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What side effects can this medication cause?

Thyroid may cause side effects. Tell your doctor if any of these symptoms are severe or do not go away:

• weight loss
• shaking of a part of your body that you cannot control
• headache
• nausea
• vomiting
• diarrhea
• stomach cramps
• hyperactivity
• anxiety
• irritability or rapid changes in mood
• difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
• flushing
• increased appetite
• fever
• changes in menstrual cycle
• muscle weakness
• temporary hair loss, particularly in children during the first month of therapy

Some side effects can be serious. If you experience any of the following symptoms, call your doctor immediately:

• rash
• difficulty breathing or swallowing
• chest pain
• rapid or irregular heartbeat
• swelling of the hands, feet, ankles, or lower legs
• excessive sweating
• sensitivity or intolerance to heat
• nervousness
• seizure

Thyroid may cause other side effects. Call your doctor if you have any unusual problems while taking this medication.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What should I do if I forget a dose?

Take the missed dose as soon as you remember it. However, if it is almost time for the next dose, skip the missed dose and continue your regular dosing schedule. Do not take a double dose to make up for a missed one. Tell your doctor if you miss two or more doses of thyroid in a row.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What special dietary instructions should I follow?

Unless your doctor tells you otherwise, continue your normal diet.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What special precautions should I follow?

Before taking thyroid,

• tell your doctor and pharmacist if you are allergic to thyroid, any other medications, pork, or any of the ingredients in thyroid tablets. Ask your pharmacist for a list of the ingredients.
• tell your doctor and pharmacist what other prescription and nonprescription medications, vitamins, and nutritional supplements you are taking or plan to take. Be sure to mention any of the following: androgens such as danazol or testosterone; anticoagulants ('blood thinners') such as warfarin (Coumadin);antidepressants; aprepitant (Emend); carbamazepine (Carbatrol, Epitol, Tegretol);diabetes medications that you take by mouth;, digoxin (Lanoxin); efavirenz (Sustiva); estrogen (hormone replacement therapy) griseofulvin (Fulvicin, Grifulvin, Gris-PEG); human growth hormone (Genotropin); insulin; lovastatin (Altocor, Mevacor); nevirapine (Viramune); oral contraceptives containing estrogen; oral steroids such as dexamethasone (Decadron, Dexone, Dexpak), methylprednisolone (Medrol), and prednisone (Deltasone); phenobarbital (Luminal, Solfoton); phenytoin (Dilantin, Phenytek); potassium iodide (contained in Elixophyllin-Kl, Pediacof, KIE); rifabutin (Mycobutin); rifampin (Rifadin, Rimactane, in Rifamate); ritonavir (Norvir, in Kaletra);salicylate pain relievers such as aspirin and aspirin-containing products, choline magnesium trisalicylate, choline salicylate (Arthropan), diflunisal (Dolobid), magnesium salicylate (Doan's, others), and salsalate (Argesic, Disalcid, Salgesic); strong iodine solution (Lugol's Solution);and theophylline (Elixophyllin, Theolair, Theo-24, Quibron, others).
• if you take cholestyramine (Questran) or colestipol (Colestid), take it at least 4 hours before taking your thyroid medication. If you take antacids, iron-containing medications or nutritional supplements, simethicone, or sucralfate (Carafate), take them at least 4 hours before or 4 hours after taking your thyroid medication.
• tell your doctor what herbal products you are taking, especially St. John's wort.
• tell your doctor if you have or have ever had diabetes; osteoporosis; hardening or narrowing of the arteries (atherosclerosis); cardiovascular disease such as high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol and fats, angina (chest pain), arrhythmias, or heart attack; malabsorption diseases (conditions that cause a decrease in absorption from the intestine); an underactive adrenal or pituitary gland; or kidney or liver disease.
• tell your doctor if you are pregnant, plan to become pregnant, or are breast-feeding. If you become pregnant while taking thyroid, call your doctor.
• talk to your doctor about the risks and benefits of taking thyroid if you are 65 years of age or older. Older adults should not usually take thyroid becasue it is not as safe as other medications that can be used to treat the same condition.
• if you are having surgery, including dental surgery, tell the doctor or dentist that you are taking thyroid.
  
  10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
  Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
  On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
  at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
  292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.
  
  For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

Other uses for this medicine?

This medication is sometimes prescribed for other uses; ask your doctor or pharmacist for more information.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

How should this medicine be used?

Thyroid comes as a tablet to take by mouth. It usually is taken once a day before breakfast. Take thyroid at around the same time every day. Follow the directions on your prescription label carefully, and ask your doctor or pharmacist to explain any part you do not understand. Take thyroid exactly as directed. Do not take more or less of it or take it more often than prescribed by your doctor.

Your doctor will probably start you on a low dose of thyroid and gradually increase your dose.
Thyroid helps control the symptoms of hypothyroidism, but does not cure this condition. It may take up to several weeks before you notice any change in your symptoms. To control the symptoms of hypothyroidism, you probably will need to take thyroid for the rest of your life. Continue to take thyroid even if you feel well. Do not stop taking thyroid without talking to your doctor.

 10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

Why is this medication(Thyroid) prescribed?

Thyroid is used to treat the symptoms of hypothyroidism (a condition where the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone). Symptoms of hypothyroidism include lack of energy, depression, constipation, weight gain, hair loss, dry skin, dry coarse hair, muscle cramps, decreased concentration, aches and pains, swelling of the legs, and increased sensitivity to cold. Thyroid is also used to treat goiter (enlarged thyroid gland). Thyroid is in a class of medications called thyroid agents. It works by supplying the thyroid hormone normally produced by the body.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What is Thyroid(thye'roid)?

Brand names

• Armour Thyroid
• Etwon
• Natural Thyroid
• Nature-Throid
• Thyrotab
• Westhroid
  
  

  Other names

  • Desiccated thyroid
  • thyroid extract
  • thyroid gland
    
    10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
    Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
    On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
    at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
    292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.
    
    For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What are the Refrence areas for larynx Cancer?

1. National Comprehensive Cancer Network Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Head and Neck Cancers. National Comprehensive Cancer Network; 2009. Version 1.2009.
2. Posner M. Head and neck cancer. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007: chap 200.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What is the Prevention for larynx Cancer?

Avoid smoking and other tobacco exposure. Limit or avoid alcohol use.

10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

When should we call our health provider?

Call your health care provider if:

• You have symptoms of throat cancer, especially hoarseness or a change in voice with no obvious cause that lasts longer than 3 weeks
• You find a lump in your neck that does not go away in 2 - 3 weeks
  
  10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
  Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
  On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
  at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
  292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.
  
  For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

what are the complications in larynx Cancer?

• Airway obstruction
• Difficulty swallowing
• Disfigurement of the neck or face
• Hardening of the skin of the neck
• Loss of voice and speaking ability
• Spread of the cancer to other body areas (metastasis)
  
  10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
  Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
  On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
  at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
  292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.
  
  For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What are the Expectations (prognosis) for larynx Cancer?

Throat cancers can be cured in 90% of patients if detected early. If the cancer has spread to surrounding tissues or lymph nodes in the neck, 50 - 60% of patients can be cured. If the cancer has spread (metastasized) to parts of the body outside the head and neck, the cancer is not curable and treatment is aimed at prolonging and improving quality of life.

After treatment, patients generally need therapy to help with speech and swallowing. A small percentage of patients (5%) will not be able to swallow and will need to be fed through a feeding tube.

 10th FOUNDATION DAY Celebrations
Ahsaan Qureshi Musical Nite
On Monday, 20th June, 2011 at 4.30 p.m
at Sri Shanmukhananda Chandrasekarendra Saraswati Auditorium,
292, Comrade Harbanslal Marg, Sion (E), Mumbai - 400 022.

For More Information Visit: www.cancerarfoundation.org

What is the treatment for larynx Cancer?

The goal of treatment is to completely remove the cancer and prevent it from spreading to other parts of the body.

When the tumor is small, either surgery or radiation therapy alone can be used to remove the tumor.

When the tumor is larger or has spread to lymph nodes in the neck, a combination of radiation and chemotherapy is often used to preserve the voice box.

Some patients need surgery to remove the tumor, including all or part of the vocal cords (laryngectomy). If have a laryngectomy, you can learn other ways to speak with speech therapy.

Many patients also need swallowing therapy after treatment to help them adjust to the changes in the structure of the throat.

What are the Signs and Tests for larynx Cancer?

An examination of the neck and throat may show cancer of the throat.

Signs include:

Bloody phlegm (sputum)

Lump on the outside of the neck

Tests may include:

Biopsy of tissue to confirm the presence of a cancerous tumor

Cranial CT scan

Cranial MRI

Laryngoscopy

What are the symptoms of larynx Cancer?

Abnormal (high-pitched) breathing sounds

Cough

Coughing up blood

Difficulty swallowing

Hoarseness that does not get better in 1 - 2 weeks

Neck pain

Sore throat that does not get better in 1 - 2 weeks, even with antibiotics

Swelling or lumps in the neck

Unintentional weight loss

What are the Causes, incidence, and risk factors of larynx Cancer?

People who smoke or otherwise use tobacco are at risk of developing throat cancer. Excessive alcohol use also increases risk. Smoking and drinking alcohol combined lead to an increased risk for throat cancers.

Most cancers of the throat develop in adults older than 50. Men are 10 times more likely than women to develop throat cancers.

What is throat or larynx Cancer?

Vocal cord cancer; Throat cancer; Laryngeal cancer; Cancer of the glottis

Cancer of the throat is cancer of the vocal cords, voice box (larynx), or other areas of the throat.

What are the refrence areas for Testicular cancer?

Einhorn LH. Testicular cancer. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 210.

Screening for testicular cancer: update of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2004. Accessed May 15, 2010.

National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Clinical practice guidelines in oncology. Testicular cancer. v.2.2010.

How to prevent Testicular cancer?

The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends against routine screening for testicular cancer because there is no known effective screening technique.

A testicular self-examination (TSE) performed on a monthly basis, however, may help detect such cancer at an early stage before it spreads. Finding testicular cancer early is important to successful treatment and survival.

What are the compliactions in Testicular cancer?

Testicular cancer may spread to other parts of the body. The most common sites include the:

Abdomen

Lungs

Retroperitoneal area (the area near the kidneys)

Spine

Complications of surgery can include:

Bleeding and infection after surgery

Infertility (if both testicles are removed)

If you are of childbearing age, ask your doctor about methods to save your sperm for use at a later date.

What are the Expectations (prognosis) for Testicular cancer?

sticular cancer is one of the most treatable and curable cancers.

The survival rate for men with early-stage seminoma (the least aggressive type of testicular cancer) is greater than 95%. The disease-free survival rate for Stage II and III cancers is slightly lower, depending on the size of the tumor and when treatment is begun.

What are ths support groups for Testicular cancer?

Joining a support group where members share common experiences and problems can often help the stress of illness. Your local branch of the American Cancer Society may have a support group. See: www.cancer.org for more information.

Lance Armstrong, a famous cyclist, is a survivor of testicular cancer. His web site -- www.laf.org -- offers support and information for patients with testicular cancer.

The National Cancer Institute website also provides further information: www.cancer.gov

What is treatment for Testicular cancer?

Treatment depends on the:

Type of testicular tumor

Stage of the tumor

Once cancer is found, the first step is to determine the type of cancer cell by examining it under a microscope. The cells can be seminoma, nonseminoma, or both.

The next step is to determine how far the cancer has spread to other parts of the body. This is called "staging."

Stage I cancer has not spread beyond the testicle.

Stage II cancer has spread to lymph nodes in the abdomen.

Stage III cancer has spread beyond the lymph nodes (it could be as far as the liver, lungs, or brain).

Three types of treatment can be used.

Surgical treatment removes the testicle (orchiectomy) and may also remove nearby lymph nodes (lymphadenectomy). This is usually performed in the case of both seminoma and nonseminomas.

Radiation therapy using high-dose x-rays or other high-energy rays may be used after surgery to prevent the tumor from returning. Radiation therapy is usually only used for treating seminomas.

Chemotherapy uses drugs such as cisplatin, bleomycin, and etoposide to kill cancer cells. This treatment has greatly improved survival for patients with both seminomas and nonseminomas.

What are the signs and tests for Testicular cancer?

A physical examination typically reveals a firm lump (mass) in one of the testicles. When the health care provider holds a flashlight up to the scrotum, the light does not pass through the lump.

Other tests include:

Abdominal and pelvic CT scan

Blood tests for tumor markers: alpha fetoprotein (AFP), human chorionic gonadotrophin (beta HCG), and lactic dehydrogenase (LDH)

Chest x-ray

Ultrasound of the scrotum

An examination of the tissue is usually done after the entire testicle is surgically removed.

What are the symptoms of Testicular cancer?

There may be no symptoms. Symptoms that may occur can include:

Discomfort or pain in the testicle, or a feeling of heaviness in the scrotum

Pain in the back or lower abdomen

Enlargement of a testicle or a change in the way it feels

Excess development of breast tissue (gynecomastia), however, this can occur normally in adolescent boys who do not have testicular cancer

Lump or swelling in either testicle

Symptoms in other parts of the body, such as the lungs, abdomen, pelvis, back, or brain, may also occur if the cancer has spread.

What are the Causes, incidence, and risk factors of Testicular cancer?

The exact cause of testicular cancer is unknown. There is no link between vasectomy and testicular cancer. Factors that may increase a man's risk for testicular cancer include:

Abnormal testicle development

History of testicular cancer

History of undescended testicle

Klinefelter syndrome

Other possible causes include exposure to certain chemicals and HIV infection. A family history of testicular cancer may also increase risk.

Testicular cancer is the most common form of cancer in men between the ages of 15 and 35. It can occur in older men, and rarely, in younger boys.

White men are more likely than African-American and Asian-American men to develop this type of cancer.

There are two main types of testicular cancer: seminomas and nonseminomas. These cancers grow from germ cells, the cells that make sperm.

Seminoma: This is a slow-growing form of testicular cancer usually found in men in their 30s and 40s. The cancer is usually just in the testes, but it can spread to the lymph nodes. Seminomas are very sensitive to radiation therapy.

Nonseminoma: This more common type of testicular cancer tends to grow more quickly than seminomas. Nonseminoma tumors are often made up of more than one type of cell, and are identified according to these different cell types:

Choriocarcinoma (rare)

Embryonal carcinoma

Teratoma

Yolk sac tumor

A stromal tumor is a rare type of testicular tumor. They are usually not cancerous. The two main types of stromal tumors are Leydig cell tumors and Sertoli cell tumors. Stromal tumors usually occur during childhood.

What is Testicular cancer?

Cancer - testes; Germ cell tumor; Seminoma testicular cancer; Nonseminoma testicular cancer

Testicular cancer is cancer that starts in the testicles, the male reproductive glands located in the scrotum.

What Are the refrence areas For Pancreatic carcinoma?

National Cancer Institute. Pancreatic cancer treatment PDQ. Updated July 31, 2008.
Tempero M, Brand R. Pancreatic cancer. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2007:chap 204

How to Prevent Pancreatic carcinoma?

If you smoke, stop smoking.

Eat a diet high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

Exercise regularly.

When Should You Call your Health Care Provider( Pancreatic carcinoma) ?

Call for an appointment with your health care provider if you have:

Back pain

Unexplained fatigue or weight loss

Loss of appetite

Persistent abdominal pain

Other symptoms of this disorder

What are the Complications in Pancreatic carcinoma?

Blood clots

Depression

Infections

Liver problems

Pain

Weight loss

What are the Expectations (prognosis) For Pancreatic carcinoma?

Some patients with pancreatic cancer that can be surgically removed are cured. However, in more than 80% of patients the tumor has already spread and cannot be completely removed at the time of diagnosis.

Chemotherapy and radiation are often given after surgery to increase the cure rate (this is called adjuvant therapy). For pancreatic cancer that cannot be removed completely with surgery, or cancer that has spread beyond the pancreas, a cure is not possible and the average survival is usually less than 1 year. Such patients should consider enrolling in a clinical trial (a medical research study to determine the best treatment).

Ninety-five percent of the people diagnosed with this cancer will not be alive 5 years later.

What are the Support Groups For Pancreatic carcinoma?

You can ease the stress of illness by joining a support group with members who share common experiences and problems .

What is treatement for Pancreatic carcinoma?

Because pancreatic cancer is often advanced when it is first found, very few pancreatic tumors can be removed by surgery. The standard procedure is called a pancreaticoduodenectomy (Whipple procedure).

This surgery should be done at centers that perform the procedure frequently. Some studies suggest that surgery is best performed at hospitals that do more than five of these surgeries per year.

When the tumor has not spread out of the pancreas but cannot be removed, radiation therapy and chemotherapy together may be recommended.

When the tumor has spread (metastasized) to other organs such as the liver, chemotherapy alone is usually used. The standard chemotherapy drug is gemcitabine, but other drugs may be used. Gemcitabine can help approximately 25% of patients.

Patients whose tumor cannot be totally removed, but who have a blockage of the tubes that transport bile (biliary obstruction) must have that blockage relieved. There are generally two approaches to this:

Surgery

Placement of a tiny metal tube (biliary stent) during ERCP

Management of pain and other symptoms is an important part of treating advanced pancreatic cancer. Hospice can help with pain and symptom management, and provide psychological support for patients and their families during the illness.

What are the Signs and tests for Pancreatic carcinoma?

CT scan of the abdomen

MRI of the abdomen

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)

Endoscopic ultrasound

Pancreatic biopsy

This disease may also affect the results of the following tests:

Liver function tests

Serum bilirubin

Complete blood count (CBC)

What are the Symptoms for Pancreatic carcinoma?

A tumor or cancer in the pancreas may often grow without any symptoms at first. This may mean pancreatic cancer is more advanced when it is first found.

Early symptoms of pancreatic cancer include:

Pain or discomfort in the upper part of the belly or abdomen

Loss of appetite and weight loss

Jaundice (a yellow color in the skin, mucus membranes, or the eyes)

Dark urine and clay-colored stools

Fatigue and weakness

Nausea and vomiting

Other possible symptoms are:

Back pain

Blood clots

Depression

Diarrhea

Difficulty sleeping

Indigestion

What Are the Causes, incidence, and risk factors of Pancreatic carcinoma?

The pancreas is a large organ that is found behind the stomach. It makes and releases enzymes that help the body absorb foods, especially fats. Hormones called insulin and glucagon are also made in the pancreas. These hormones help your body control blood sugar levels.

The exact cause is unknown, but pancreatic cancer is more common in smokers and people who are obese. Pancreatic cancer is slightly more common in women than in men. The risk increases with age.

A small number of cases are related to genetic syndromes that are passed down through families.

What is Pancreatic carcinoma?

Pancreatic cancer; Cancer - pancreas

Pancreatic carcinoma is cancer of the pancreas.

what are the refrences for Hepatocellular carcinoma?

National Cancer Institute. Adult primary liver cancer treatment PDQ. Updated May 22, 2009.
Roberts LR. Liver and biliary tract tumors. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 206.

What are the Preventive methods for Hepatocellular carcinoma?

Preventing and treating viral hepatitis may help reduce your risk. Childhood vaccination against hepatitis B may reduce the risk of liver cancer in the future.

Avoid drinking excessive amounts of alcohol. Certain patients may benefit from screening for hemochromatosis.

If you have chronic hepatitis or known cirrhosis, periodic screening with liver ultrasound or measurement of blood alpha fetoprotein levels may help detect this cancer early.

When Should we call our Health care provider?

Call your health care provider if you develop persistent abdominal pain, especially if you have a history of any liver disease.

What are the Complications that Occur during Hepatocellular carcinoma?

Gastrointestinal bleeding

Liver failure

Spread (metastasis) of the carcinoma

What are the Expectations( prgnosis ) for Hepatocellular carcinoma?

The usual outcome is poor, because only 10 - 20% of hepatocellular carcinomas can be removed completely using surgery.

If the cancer cannot be completely removed, the disease is usually fatal within 3 - 6 months. However, survival can vary, and occasionally people will survive much longer than 6 months.

What are the support groups for Hepatocellular carcinoma?

You can ease the stress of illness by joining a support group with members who share common experiences and problems. See:

Cancer - support group

Liver disease - support group

What is the Treatment for Hepatocellular carcinoma?

Aggressive surgery or a liver transplant can successfully treat small or slow-growing tumors if they are diagnosed early. However, few patients are diagnosed early.

Chemotherapy and radiation treatments are not usually effective. However, they may be used to shrink large tumors so that surgery has a greater chance of success.

Sorafenib tosylate (Nexavar), an oral medicine that blocks tumor growth, is now approved for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.

What are the Signs and tests of Hepatocellular carcinoma?

Physical examination may show an enlarged, tender liver.

Tests include:

Abdominal CT scan

Abdominal ultrasound

Liver biopsy

Liver enzymes (liver function tests)

Liver scan

Serum alpha fetoprotein

Some high-risk patients may get periodic blood tests and ultrasounds to see whether tumors are developing.

What are the Symptoms of Hepatocellular carcinoma?

Abdominal pain or tenderness, especially in the upper-right part

Easy bruising or bleeding

Enlarged abdomen

Yellow skin or eyes (jaundice)

What are the Causes, incidence, and risk factors of Hepatocellular carcinoma?

Hepatocellular carcinoma accounts for most liver cancers. This type of cancer occurs more often in men than women. It is usually seen in people ages 50 - 60.

The disease is more common in parts of Africa and Asia than in North or South America and Europe.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is not the same as metastatic liver cancer, which starts in another organ (such as the breast or colon) and spreads to the liver.

In most cases, the cause of liver cancer is usually scarring of the liver (cirrhosis). Cirrhosis may be caused by:

Alcohol abuse (the most common cause in the United States)

Certain autoimmune diseases of the liver

Diseases that cause long-term inflammation of the liver

Hepatitis B or C virus infection

Too much iron in the body (hemochromatosis)

Patients with hepatitis B or C are at risk for liver cancer, even if they do not have cirrhosis.

What is Hepatocellular carcinoma?

Primary liver cell carcinoma; Tumor - liver; Liver cancer; Cancer - liver

Hepatocellular carcinoma is cancer of the liver.

What are the Refrence Areas for esophageal cancer?

Das A. Tumors of the esophagus. In: Feldman M, Friedman LS, Brandt LJ, eds. Sleisenger and Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2010:chap 46.

National Cancer Institute. Esophageal Cancer Treatment PDQ. Updated July 20, 2010.

National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Inc. NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. Esophageal Cancer. V2. 2010. Accessed January 22, 2011.

How to Prevent Esophageal cancer?

The following may help reduce your risk of squamous cell cancer of the esophagus:

Avoid smoking

Limit or do not drink alcoholic beverages

People with symptoms of severe gastroesophageal reflux should seek medical attention.

Screening with EGD and biopsy in people with Barrett's esophagus may lead to early detection and improved survival. People who are diagnosed with Barrett's esophagus should consider getting regular checkups for esophageal cancer.

What are the Complications thaat may occur during Esophageal cancer?

Difficulty swallowing

Pneumonia

Severe weight loss from not eating enough

Spread of the tumor to other areas of the body

What are the Expectations( Prognosis ) for Esophageal cancer?

Esophageal cancer is usually not curable. When the cancer has not spread outside the esophagus, surgery may improve the chances of survival.

Radiation therapy is used instead of surgery in some cases where the cancer has not spread outside the esophagus.

For patients whose cancer has spread, a cure is generally not possible. Treatment is directed toward relieving symptoms.

What are the symptoms of Esophageal cancer?

Backwards movement of food through the esophagus and possibly mouth (regurgitation)

Chest pain unrelated to eating

Difficulty swallowing solids or liquids

Heartburn

Vomiting blood

Weight loss

What are the signs of Esophageal cancer?

Tests used to help diagnose esophageal cancer may include:

Barium swallow

Chest MRI or thoracic CT (usually used to help determine the stage of the disease)

Endoscopic ultrasound (also sometimes used to determine the stage of disease)

Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) and biopsy

PET scan (sometimes useful for determining the stage of disease, and whether surgery is possible)

Stool testing may show small amounts of blood in the stool.

What are the causes of Esophageal cancer?

Esophageal cancer is not very common in the United States. It occurs most often in men over 50 years old.

Two main types of esophageal cancer exist: squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. These two types look different from each other under the microscope.

Squamous cell esophageal cancer is linked to smoking and alcohol consumption.

Barrett's esophagus, a complication of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), increases the risk for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. This is the more common type of esophageal cancer. Other risk factors for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus include:

Male gender

Obesity

Smoking

What is Esophageal cancer?

Cancer - esophagus

Esophageal cancer is a cancerous (malignant) tumor of the esophagus, the muscular tube that moves food from the mouth to the stomach.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - References

Horning SJ. Hodgkin’s lymphoma. In: Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE, Kastan MB, McKena WG, eds. Clinical Oncology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2008:chap 111.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Calling your health care provider

Call your health care provider if:

You have symptoms of Hodgkin's lymphoma

You are being treated for Hodgkin's lymphoma and you experience side effects of radiation and chemotherapy, including nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, or bleeding.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Complications

Long term complications of chemotherapy or radiation therapy include:

Bone marrow diseases

Heart disease

Inability to have children (infertility)

Lung problems

Other cancers

Thyroid problems

Chemotherapy can cause low blood cell counts, which can lead to an increased risk of bleeding, infection, and anemia. To minimize bleeding, apply ice and pressure to any external bleeding. Use a soft toothbrush and electric razor for personal hygiene.

Infection should always be taken seriously during cancer treatment. Contact your doctor immediately if you develop fever or other signs of infection. Planning daily activities with scheduled rest periods may help prevent fatigue associated with anemia.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Expectations (prognosis)

Hodgkin’s disease is considered one of the most curable forms of cancer, especially if it is diagnosed and treated early. Unlike other cancers, Hodgkin's disease is often very curable even in late stages.

With the right treatment, more than 90% of people with stage I or II Hodgkin's lymphoma survive for at least 10 years. If the disease has spread, the treatment is more intense but the percentage of people who survive 5 years is about 90%.

Patients who survive 15 years after treatment are more likely to later die from other causes than Hodgkin’s disease.

People with Hodgkin’s lymphoma whose disease returns within a year after treatment or do not respond to the first-line therapy have a poorer prognosis.

It is important for patients to receive periodic examinations and imaging tests for years after treatment to check for signs of relapse and to check for the long-term effects of treatments.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Support Groups

You can often ease the stress of illness by joining a support group of people who share common experiences and problems. See cancer - support group.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Treatment

Treatment primarily depends on the following:

The type of Hodgkin's lymphoma (most people have classic Hodgkin's)

The stage (where the disease is found)

Whether the tumor is more than 4 inches (10 cm) wide

The patient's age and other medical issues

Other factors, including weight loss, night sweats, and fever

A staging evaluation is necessary to determine the treatment plan.

Stage I indicates one lymph node region is involved (for example, the right neck).

Stage II indicates involvement of two lymph node areas on the same side of the diaphragm (for example, both sides of the neck).

Stage III indicates lymph node involvement on both sides of the diaphragm (for example, groin and armpit).

Stage IV involves the spread of cancer outside the lymph nodes (for example, to bone marrow, lungs, or liver).

Treatment varies with the stage of the disease and age of the patient. The best treatment depends on each individual and should be discussed with a doctor who has experience treating this disease.

Stages I and II (limited disease) can be treated with local radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of both.

Stages III is treated with chemotherapy alone or a combination of radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

Stage IV (extensive disease) is most often treated with chemotherapy alone.

People with Hodgkin’s lymphoma that returns after treatment or does not respond to treatment may receive high-dose chemotherapy followed by an autologous bone marrow transplant (using stem cells from yourself).

Additional treatments depend on other symptoms. They may include:

Transfusion of blood products, such as platelets or red blood cells, to fight low platelet counts and anemia

Antibiotics to fight infection, especially if a fever occurs.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Treatment

Treatment primarily depends on the following:

The type of Hodgkin's lymphoma (most people have classic Hodgkin's)

The stage (where the disease is found)

Whether the tumor is more than 4 inches (10 cm) wide

The patient's age and other medical issues

Other factors, including weight loss, night sweats, and fever

A staging evaluation is necessary to determine the treatment plan.

Stage I indicates one lymph node region is involved (for example, the right neck).

Stage II indicates involvement of two lymph node areas on the same side of the diaphragm (for example, both sides of the neck).

Stage III indicates lymph node involvement on both sides of the diaphragm (for example, groin and armpit).

Stage IV involves the spread of cancer outside the lymph nodes (for example, to bone marrow, lungs, or liver).

Treatment varies with the stage of the disease and age of the patient. The best treatment depends on each individual and should be discussed with a doctor who has experience treating this disease.

Stages I and II (limited disease) can be treated with local radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of both.

Stages III is treated with chemotherapy alone or a combination of radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

Stage IV (extensive disease) is most often treated with chemotherapy alone.

People with Hodgkin’s lymphoma that returns after treatment or does not respond to treatment may receive high-dose chemotherapy followed by an autologous bone marrow transplant (using stem cells from yourself).

Additional treatments depend on other symptoms. They may include:

Transfusion of blood products, such as platelets or red blood cells, to fight low platelet counts and anemia

Antibiotics to fight infection, especially if a fever occurs.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Treatment

Treatment primarily depends on the following:

The type of Hodgkin's lymphoma (most people have classic Hodgkin's)

The stage (where the disease is found)

Whether the tumor is more than 4 inches (10 cm) wide

The patient's age and other medical issues

Other factors, including weight loss, night sweats, and fever

A staging evaluation is necessary to determine the treatment plan.

Stage I indicates one lymph node region is involved (for example, the right neck).

Stage II indicates involvement of two lymph node areas on the same side of the diaphragm (for example, both sides of the neck).

Stage III indicates lymph node involvement on both sides of the diaphragm (for example, groin and armpit).

Stage IV involves the spread of cancer outside the lymph nodes (for example, to bone marrow, lungs, or liver).

Treatment varies with the stage of the disease and age of the patient. The best treatment depends on each individual and should be discussed with a doctor who has experience treating this disease.

Stages I and II (limited disease) can be treated with local radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of both.

Stages III is treated with chemotherapy alone or a combination of radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

Stage IV (extensive disease) is most often treated with chemotherapy alone.

People with Hodgkin’s lymphoma that returns after treatment or does not respond to treatment may receive high-dose chemotherapy followed by an autologous bone marrow transplant (using stem cells from yourself).

Additional treatments depend on other symptoms. They may include:

Transfusion of blood products, such as platelets or red blood cells, to fight low platelet counts and anemia

Antibiotics to fight infection, especially if a fever occurs.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Signs and tests

The disease may be diagnosed after:

Biopsy of suspected tissue, usually a lymph node biopsy

Bone marrow biopsy

If tests reveal you do have Hodkin's lymphoma, additional tests will be done to see if the cancer has spread. This is called staging. Staging helps guide future treatment and follow-up and gives you some idea of what to expect in the future.

The following procedures will usually be done:

Blood chemistry tests including protein levels, liver function tests, kidney function tests, and uric acid level

CT scans of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis

Complete blood count (CBC) to check for anemia and white blood count

PET scan

In some cases, abdominal surgery to take a piece of the liver and remove the spleen may be needed. However, because the other tests are now so good at detecting the spread of Hodgkin's lymphoma, this surgery is usually unnecessary.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Symptoms

Fatigue

Fever and chills that come and go

Itching all over the body that cannot be explained

Loss of appetite

Soaking night sweats

Painless swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin (swollen glands)

Weight loss that cannot be explained

Other symptoms that may occur with this disease:

Coughing, chest pains, or breathing problems if there are swollen lymph nodes in the chest

Excessive sweating

Pain or feeling of fullness below the ribs due to swollen spleen or liver

Pain in lymph nodes after drinking alcohol

Skin blushing or flushing

Note: Symptoms caused by Hodgkin's lymphoma may also occur also with other conditions. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific symptoms.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma - Causes, incidence, and risk factors

The first sign of this cancer is often an enlarged lymph node which appears without a known cause. The disease can spread to nearby lymph nodes. Later it may spread to the spleen, liver, bone marrow, or other organs.

The cause is not known. Hodgkin's lymphoma is most common among people ages 15 - 35 and 50 - 70. Infection with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is thought to contribute to most cases.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma

Lymphoma - Hodgkin's; Hodgkin's disease; Cancer - Hodgkin's lymphoma

Hodgkin's lymphoma is a cancer of lymph tissue found in the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, bone marrow, and other sites.

Metastatic brain tumor - References

Maity A, Pruitt AA, Judy KD, Phillips PC, Lustig R. Cancer of the central nervous system. In: Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE, Kastan MB, McKenna WG, eds. Abeloff’s Clinical Oncology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2008:chap 70.
Nguyen TD, Abrey LE. Brain metastases: old problem, new strategies. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2007;21(2):369-388.

Metastatic brain tumor - Calling your health care provider

Call your health care provider if you develop a persistent headache that is new or different for you.

Call your provider or go to the emergency room if you or someone else suddenly develops stupor, vision changes, or speech impairment, or has seizures that are new or different.

Metastatic brain tumor - Complications

Brain herniation (fatal)

Loss of ability to function or care for self

Loss of ability to interact

Permanent, progressive, profound neurologic losses

Metastatic brain tumor - Expectations (prognosis)

In general, the probable outcome is fairly poor. For many people with metastatic brain tumors, the cancer spreads to other areas of the body. Death often occurs within 2 years.

Metastatic brain tumor - Treatment

Treatment depends on the size and type of the tumor, the initial site of the tumor, and the general health of the person. The goals of treatment may be relief of symptoms, improved functioning, or comfort.

Radiation to the whole brain is often used to treat tumors that have spread to the brain, especially if there is more than one tumor.

Surgery may be used for metastatic brain tumors when there is a single lesion and when there is no cancer elsewhere in the body. Some may be completely removed. Tumors that are deep or that infiltrate brain tissue may be debulked (removing much of the tumor's mass to reduce its size).

Surgery may reduce pressure and relieve symptoms in cases when the tumor cannot be removed.

Chemotherapy for brain metastases is not as helpful as surgery or radiation for many types of cancer.

Stereotactic radiosurgery is used at some hospitals. This is a form of radiation therapy that focuses high-powered x-rays on a small area of the brain.

Medications for some symptoms of a brain tumor may include the following:

Corticosteroids such as dexamethasone to reduce brain swelling

Osmotic diuretics such as urea or mannitol to reduce brain swelling

Anticonvulsants such as phenytoin or levetiracetam to reduce seizures

Pain medication

Antacids or antihistamines to control stress ulcers

When widespread cancer is discovered, treatment may focus primarily on relief of pain and other symptoms. This is called palliative or supportive care.

Comfort measures, safety measures, physical therapy, occupational therapy, and other interventions may improve the patient's quality of life. Legal advice may be helpful in forming advanced directives, such as power of attorney, in cases where continued physical or intellectual decline is likely.

Metastatic brain tumor - Signs and tests

An examination reveals neurologic changes that are specific to the location of the tumor. Signs of increased pressure within the skull are also common. Some tumors may not show symptoms until they are very large. Then, they suddenly cause rapid decline in the person's neurologic functioning.

The original (primary) tumor may already be known, or it may be discovered after an examination of tumor tissues from the brain indicates that it is a metastatic type of tumor.

A CT scan or MRI of the brain can confirm the diagnosis of brain tumor and identify the location of the tumor. MRI is usually better for finding tumors in the brain.

Cerebral angiography is occasionally performed. It may show a space-occupying mass, which may or may not be highly vascular (filled with blood vessels).

A chest x-ray, mammogram, CT scans of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, and other tests are performed to look for the original site of the tumor.

An EEG may reveal abnormalities in the nerve signaling in the brain.

An examination of tissue removed from the tumor during surgery or CT scan-guided biopsy is used to confirm the exact type of tumor. If the primary tumor can be located outside of the brain, the primary tumor is usually biopsied rather than the brain tumor.

A lumbar puncture (spinal tap) is sometimes also performed to test the cerebral spinal fluid to look for cells related to the tumor.

Metastatic brain tumor - Symptoms

Decreased coordination, clumsiness, falls

Rapid emotional changes or strange behaviors

Fever (sometimes)

General ill feeling or lethargy

Headache -- recent or a new, more severe type type for the person

Memory loss, poor judgment, difficulty solving problems

Numbness, tingling, pain, and other changes in sensation

Personality changes

Seizures -- new for the person

Speech difficulties

Vision changes -- double vision, decreased vision

Vomiting -- with or without nausea

Weakness of a body area

Note: Specific symptoms vary. The symptoms commonly seen with most types of metastatic brain tumor are those caused by increased pressure in the brain.

Metastatic brain tumor - Causes, incidence, and risk factors

Many tumor or cancer types can spread to the brain, the most common being lung cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, kidney cancer, bladder cancer, certain sarcomas, and testicular and germ cell tumors. Some types of cancers only spread to the brain infrequently, such as colon cancer, or very rarely, such as prostate cancer.

Growing brain tumors may place pressure on nearby parts of the brain. Brain swelling due to these tumors also causes increased pressure within the skull.

Metastatic brain tumors are classified depending on the exact site of the tumor within the brain, type of tissue involved, original location of the tumor, and other factors. Rarely, a tumor can spread to the brain, yet the original site or location of the tumor is unknown. This is called cancer of unknown primary (CUP) origin.

Metastatic brain tumors occur in about one-fourth of all cancers that metastasize (spread through the body). They are much more common than primary brain tumors (tumors that start in the brain) and occur in approximately 10 - 30% of adult cancers.

Metastatic brain tumor

Brain tumor - metastatic (secondary); Cancer - brain tumor (metastatic)

A metastatic brain tumor is cancer that started in another part of the body and spread to the brain

Lung cancer(small cell) - References

Johnson DH, Blot WJ, Carbone DP, et al. Cancer of the lung: Non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer. In: Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE, Kastan MB, McKenna WG, eds. Abeloff’sClinical Oncology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2008:chap 76.

Lung cancer(small cell) - Prevention

If you smoke, stop smoking. It's never too late to quit. In addition, you should try to avoid secondhand smoke.

Lung cancer(small cell) - Calling your health care provider

Call your health care provider if you have symptoms of lung cancer (particularly if you smoke).

Lung cancer(small cell) - Complications

Cancer spreads to other parts of the body

Side effects of surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy

Lung cancer(small cell) - Expectations (prognosis)

How well you do depends on how much the lung cancer has spread. This type of cancer is very deadly. Only about 6% of people with this type of cancer are still alive 5 years after diagnosis.

Treatment can often prolong life for 6 - 12 months, even when the cancer has spread.

Lung cancer(small cell) - Treatment

Because SCLC spreads quickly throughout the body, treatment must include cancer-killing drugs (chemotherapy) taken by mouth or injected into the body. Usually, the chemotherapy drug etoposide is combined with either cisplatin or carboplatin.

Combination chemotherapy and radiation treatment is given to people with extensive SCLC. However, the treatment only helps relieve symptoms. It does not cure the disease.

Radiation therapy uses powerful x-rays or other forms of radiation to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy can be used with chemotherapy if surgery is not possible. Radiation may be used to:

Treat the cancer, along with chemotherapy if surgery is not possible

Help relieve symptoms caused by the cancer such as breathing problems and swelling.

Help relieve cancer pain when the cancer has spread to the bones

Often, SCLC may have already spread to the brain, even when there are no symptoms or other signs of cancer in the brain. As a result, radiation therapy to the brain may be given to some patients with smaller cancers, or to those who had a good response in the first round of chemotherapy. This method is called prophylactic cranial irradiation (PCI).

Very few patients with SCLC are helped by having surgery because the disease has often spread by the time of diagnosis. Surgery may be done when there is only one tumor that has not spread. If surgery is done, chemotherapy or radiation therapy will still be needed.

Lung cancer(small cell) - Signs and tests

Your health care provider will perform a physical exam and ask questions about your medical history. You will be asked whether you smoke, and if so, how much and for how long you have smoked.

When listening to your chest with a stethoscope, your health care provider can sometimes hear fluid around the lungs or areas of partial lung collapse. Each of these findings could (but does not always) suggest cancer.

Small cell lung cancer has usually spread to other parts of your body by the time it is diagnosed.

Tests that may be performed include:

Bone scan

Chest x-ray

Complete blood count (CBC)

CT scan

Liver function tests

MRI

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

Sputum test (cytology, looking for cancer cells)

Thoracentesis (removal of fluid from the chest cavity around the lungs)

In some cases, your health care provider may need to remove a piece of tissue from your lungs for examination under a microscope. This is called a biopsy. There are several ways to do this:

Bronchoscopy combined with biopsy

CT scan-directed needle biopsy

Endoscopic esophageal ultrasound (EUS) with biopsy

Mediastinoscopy with biopsy

Open lung biopsy

Pleural biopsy

Usually, if a biopsy reveals cancer, more imaging tests are done to find out the stage of the cancer. (Stage means how big the tumor is and how far it has spread.) SCLC is classified as either:

Limited (cancer is only in the chest and can be treated with radiation therapy)

Extensive (cancer has spread outside the chest)

The majority of cases are extensive.

Lung cancer(small cell) - Symptoms

Bloody sputum (phlegm)

Chest pain

Cough

Loss of appetite

Shortness of breath

Weight loss

Wheezing

Other symptoms that may occur with this disease:

Facial swelling

Fever

Hoarseness or changing voice

Swallowing difficulty

Weakness

Lung cancer(small cell) - Causes, incidence, and risk factors

About 15% of all lung cancer cases are small cell lung cancer. Small cell lung cancer is slightly more common in men than women.

Almost all cases of SCLC are due to cigarette smoking. SCLC is rare in those who have never smoked.

SCLC is the most aggressive form of lung cancer. It usually starts in the breathing tubes (bronchi) in the center of the chest. Although the cancer cells are small, they grow very quickly and create large tumors. These tumors often spread rapidly (metastasize) to other parts of the body, including the brain, liver, and bone.

Lung cancer - small cell

Cancer - lung - small cell; Small cell lung cancer; SCLC

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is a fast-growing type of lung cancer. It spreads much more quickly than non-small cell lung cancer.

There are three different types of small cell lung cancer:

Small cell carcinoma (oat cell cancer)

Mixed small cell/large cell carcinoma

Combined small cell carcinoma

Most small cell lung cancers are the oat cell type.

Lung cancer - References

Alberg AJ, Ford JG, Samet JM; American College of Chest Physicians. Epidemiology of lung cancer: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd edition). Chest. 2007;132:29S-55S.

American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2008. Atlanta, Ga: American Cancer Society; 2008.

Bach PB, Silvestri GA, Hanger M, Jett JR. Screening for lung cancer: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd edition). Chest. 2007;132:69S-77S.
Jett JR, Schild SE, Keith RL, Kesler KA. Treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, stage IIIB: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd edition). Chest. 2007;132:266S-276S.

Johnson DH, Blot WJ, Carbone DP, et al. Cancer of the lung: non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer. In: Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE, Kastan MB, McKena WG. Clinical Oncology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2008:chap 76.

Fischer B, Lassen U, Mortensen J, Larsen S, Loft A, Bertelsen A, Ravn J, Clementsen P, Høgholm A, Larsen K, Rasmussen T, Keiding S, Dirksen A, Gerke O, Skov B, Steffensen I, Hansen H, Vilmann P, Jacobsen G, Backer V, Maltbaek N, Pedersen J, Madsen H, Nielsen H, Højgaard L. Preoperative staging of lung cancer with combined PET-CT. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:32-39.

Tassinari D, Scarpi E, Sartori S, Tamburini E, Santelmo C, Tombesi P, Lazzari-Agli L. Second-line treatments in non-small cell lung cancer. A systematic review of literature and metaanalysis of randomized clinical trials. Chest. 2009;135:1596-1609.

Lung cancer - Prevention

If you smoke, stop smoking. It's never too early to quit. Your risk of lung cancer drops dramatically the first year after you quit.

Try to avoid secondhand smoke.

Lung cancer - Complications

Spread of disease beyond the lung

Side effects of surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy

Lung cancer - Expectations (prognosis)

The outlook varies widely. Most often, NSCLC grows slowly and at first causes few or no symptoms. The cancer may spread to other parts of the body, including the bone, liver, small intestine, and brain.

However, in some cases, it can be extremely aggressive and cause rapid death. Chemotherapy has been shown to prolong the life and improve the quality of life in some patients with stage IV NSCLC.

Cure rates are related to the stage of disease and whether you are able to have surgery.

Stage I and II cancer can be cured with surgery, sometimes in more than 50% of cases.

Stage III tumors can be cured in some cases.

Patients with stage IV disease or cancer that has returned are almost never cured, and the goals of therapy are to extend and improve the quality of their life.

Lung cancer - Treatment

There are many different types of treatment for non-small cell lung cancer. Treatment depends upon the stage of the cancer.

Surgery is the often the first line of treatment for patients with non-small cell lung cancer that has not spread beyond nearby lymph nodes. The surgeon may remove:

One of the lobes of the lung (lobectomy)

Only a small part of the lung (wedge or segment removal)

The entire lung (pneumonectomy)

Some patients need chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells and stop new ones from growing.

Chemotherapy alone is often used when the cancer has spread (stage IV).

It may also be given before surgery or radiation to make those treatments more effective. This is called neoadjuvant therapy.

It may be given after surgery to kill any remaining microscopic areas of cancer. This is called adjuvant therapy.

Radiation therapy can be used with chemotherapy if surgery is not possible. Radiation therapy uses powerful x-rays or other forms of radiation to kill cancer cells. Radiation may be used to:

Treat the cancer, along with chemotherapy if surgery is not possible

Help relieve symptoms caused by the cancer, such as breathing problems and swelling.

Help relieve cancer pain when the cancer has spread to the bones

The following treatments are mostly used to relieve symptoms caused by NSCLC:

Laser therapy - a small beam of light burns and kills cancer cells

Photodynamic therapy - uses a light to activate a drug in the body, which kills cancer cells

Lung cancer - Signs and tests

The health care provider will perform a physical exam and ask questions about your medical history. You will be asked if you smoke, and if so, how long you have smoked.

When listening to the chest with a stethoscope, the health care provider can sometimes hear fluid around the lungs, which could (but doesn't always) suggest cancer.

Tests that may be performed to diagnose lung cancer or see if it has spread include:

Chest x-ray

CBC

Sputum test to look for cancer cells

Bone scan

CT scan of the chest

MRI of the chest

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

Thoracentesis

In some cases, the health care provider may need to remove a piece of tissue from your lungs for examination under a microscope. This is called a biopsy. There are several ways to do this:

Bronchoscopy combined with biopsy

Pleural biopsy

CT-scan-directed needle biopsy

Mediastinoscopy with biopsy

Open lung biopsy

Endoscopic esophageal ultrasound (EUS) with biopsy

If the biopsy reveals you do have lung cancer, more imaging tests will be done to determine the stage of the cancer. Stage means how big the tumor is and how far it has spread. Non-small cell lung cancer is divided into five stages:

Stage 0 - the cancer has not spread beyond the inner lining of the lung

Stage I - the cancer is small and hasn't spread to the lymph nodes

Stage II - the cancer has spread to some lymph nodes near the original tumor

Stage III - the cancer has spread to nearby tissue or spread to far away lymph nodes

Stage IV - the cancer has spread to other organs of the body such as the other lung, brain, or liver

Lung cancer - Symptoms

Early lung cancer may not cause any symptoms. Symptoms you should watch for include:

Cough that doesn't go away

Coughing up blood

Shortness of breath

Wheezing

Chest pain

Loss of appetite

Losing weight without trying

Fatigue

Other symptoms that may be due to NSCLC:

Weakness

Swallowing difficulty

Nail problems

Joint pain

Hoarseness or changing voice

Swelling of the face

Eyelid drooping

Bone pain or tenderness

Shoulder pain or weakness

Note: These symptoms can be due to other, less serious conditions. It is important to talk to your health care provider.

Lung cancer - Causes, incidence, and risk factors

Smoking causes most cases of lung cancer. The risk depends upon the number of cigarettes smoked every day and for how long someone has smoked. Being around the smoke from others (secondhand smoke) also raises your risk for lung cancer. However, some people who do not smoke and have never smoked have developed lung cancer.

A review of decades of research has recently shown that smoking marijuana may help cancer cells grow, but there is no direct link between the drug and developing lung cancer.

High levels of air pollution and drinking water containing high levels of arsenic can increase your risk for lung cancer. Radiation therapy to the lungs can also increase the risk.

Working with or near the following cancer-causing chemicals or materials can also increase your risk:

Asbestos

Products using chloride and formaldehyde

Certain alloys, paints, pigments, and preservatives

Lung cancer - non-small cell

Cancer - lung - non-small cell; Non-small cell lung cancer; NSCLC; Adenocarcinoma - lung; Squamous cell carcinoma - lung.

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common type of lung cancer. It usually grows and spreads more slowly than small cell lung cancer.

There are three forms of NSCLC:

Adenocarcinomas are often found in an outer area of the lung.

Squamous cell carcinomas are usually found in the center of the lung by an air tube (bronchus).

Large cell carcinomas can occur in any part of the lung. They tend to grow and spread faster than the other two types.

Gastric Cancer - References

1. Rustgi AK. Neoplasms of the stomach. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 202.
2. Gunderson LL, Donohue JH, Alberts SR. Cancer of the stomach. In: Abeloff MD, et al., eds. Abeloff's Clinical Oncology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2008:chap 79.
3. National Cancer Institute. Gastric cancer treatment PDQ. Updated July 8, 2010.

Gastric Cancer - Prevention

Mass screening programs have been successful at detecting disease in the early stages in Japan, where the risk of gastric cancer is much higher than in the United States. The value of screening in the United States and other countries with lower rates of gastric cancer is not clear.

The following may help reduce your risk of gastric cancer:

Don't smoke

Eat a healthy, balanced diet rich in fruits and vegetables

Take a medication to treat reflux disease, if you have it

Gastric Cancer - Calling your health care provider

Call your health care provider if symptoms of gastric cancer develop.

Gastric Cancer - Complications

Fluid buildup in the belly area (ascites)

Gastrointestinal bleeding

Spread of cancer to other organs or tissues

Weight loss

Gastric Cancer - Expectations (prognosis)

The outlook varies. Tumors in the lower stomach are cured more often than those in the higher stomach -- gastric cardia or gastroesophageal junction. How far the tumor invades the stomach wall and whether lymph nodes are involved when the patient is diagnosed affect the chances of a cure.

When the tumor has spread outside the stomach, a cure is not possible and treatment is designed to improve symptoms.

Gastric Cancer - Support Groups

You can ease the stress of illness by joining a support group with members who share common experiences and problems. See:

Cancer - support group

Gastrointestinal disorders - support group

Gastric Cancer - Treatment

Surgery to remove the stomach (gastrectomy) is the only treatment that can cure the condition. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may help. For many patients, chemotherapy and radiation therapy after surgery may improve the chance of a cure.

For patients who cannot have surgery, chemotherapy or radiation can improve symptoms and may prolong survival, but will likely not cure the cancer. For some patients, a surgical bypass procedure may relieve symptoms.

Gastric Cancer - Signs and tests

Diagnosis is often delayed because symptoms may not occur in the early stages of the disease. Or, patients may self-treat symptoms that gastric cancer has in common with other, less serious gastrointestinal disorders (bloating, gas, heartburn, and a sense of fullness).

The following tests can help diagnose gastric cancer:

Complete blood count (CBC) to check for anemia

Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) with biopsy

Stool test to check for blood in the stools

Upper GI series

Gastric Cancer - Symptoms

Abdominal fullness or pain

Dark stools

Difficulty swallowing, especially if it increases over time

Excessive belching

General decline in health

Loss of appetite

Nausea and vomiting

Premature abdominal fullness after meals

Vomiting blood

Weakness or fatigue

Weight loss (unintentional)

Gastric Cancer - Causes, incidence, and risk factors

Several different types of cancer can occur in the stomach. The most common type is called adenocarcinoma, which starts from one of the common cell types found in the lining of the stomach.

There are several types of adenocarcinoma. Because other types of gastric cancer are more rare, this article focuses on adenocarcinoma of the stomach.

Adenocarcinoma of the stomach is a common cancer of the digestive tract worldwide, although it is uncommon in the United States. It occurs most often in men over age 40. This form of gastric cancer is very common in Japan, Chile, and Iceland.

The rate of most types of gastric adenocarcinoma in the United States has gone down over the years. Experts think the decrease may be because people are eating less salted, cured, and smoked foods.

Risk factors for gastric cancer are:

Family history of gastric cancer

Helicobacter pylori infection (a common bacteria that can also cause stomach ulcers)

History of an adenomatous gastric polyp larger than 2 centimeters

History of chronic atrophic gastritis

History of pernicious anemia

Smoking

Gastric cancer

Cancer - stomach; Stomach cancer; Gastric carcinoma; Adenocarcinoma of the stomach.

Gastric cancer is cancer that starts in the stomach.

Breast Cancer - References

1. Carlson RW, Allred DC, Anderson BO, Burstein HJ, Carter WB, Edge SB, et al. Breast cancer. Clinical practice guidelines in oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2009 Feb;7(2):122-92.
2. Chlebowski RT, Kuller LH, Prentice RL, Stefanick ML, Manson JE, Gass M, et al. Breast cancer after use of estrogen plus progestin in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 2009 Feb 5;360(6):573-87.
3. Hayes DF. Clinical practice. Follow-up of patients with early breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(24): 2505-13.

Breast Cancer - Prevention

Tamoxifen is approved for breast cancer prevention in women aged 35 and older who are at high risk. Discuss this with your doctor.

Women at very high risk for breast cancer may consider preventive (prophylactic) mastectomy. This is the surgical removal of the breasts before breast cancer is ever diagnosed. Possible candidates include:

• Women who have already had one breast removed due to cancer
• Women with a strong family history of breast cancer
• Women with genes or genetic mutations that raise their risk of breast cancer (such as BRCA1 or BRCA2)

Your doctor may do a total mastectomy to reduce your risk of breast cancer. This may reduce, but does not eliminate the risk of breast cancer.

Many risk factors, such as your genes and family history, cannot be controlled. However, eating a healthy diet and making a few lifestyle changes may reduce your overall chance of getting cancer.

There is still little agreement about whether lifestyle changes can prevent breast cancer. The best advice is to eat a well-balanced diet and avoid focusing on one "cancer-fighting" food. The American Cancer Society's dietary guidelines for cancer prevention recommend that people:

• Choose foods and portion sizes that promote a healthy weight
• Choose whole grains instead of refined grain products
• Eat 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetables each day
• Limit processed and red meat in the diet
• Limit alcohol consumption to one drink per day (women who are at high risk for breast cancer should consider not drinking alcohol at all)

Breast Cancer - Calling your health care provider

Contact your health care provider for an appointment if:

• You have a breast or armpit lump
• You have nipple discharge

Also call your health care provider if you develop symptoms after being treated for breast cancer, such as:

• Nipple discharge
• Rash on the breast
• New lumps in the breast
• Swelling in the area
• Pain, especially chest pain, abdominal pain, or bone pain.